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Research Articles Analysis of Long Term (1990-2009) in Vitro Susceptibility to Antibacterial Drugs of the Most Prevalent Animal Bacterial Pathogens Isolated in Israel
Part 1: Trends and Fluctuations
Elad, D.,* Blum, S., Fleker, M., Zukin, N., Weissblit, L. and Shlomovitz, S.
Department of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, the Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Bet Dagan, 50250 Israel
* Corresponding author: Daniel Elad, DVM, PhD. Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O.Box 12, Bet Dagan, Israel, 50250; Phone: +972-(0)3-9681688; Fax: +972-(0)3-9688965; Email: danielad@moag.gov.il
The emergence of bacterial strains resistant to antibacterial drugs has become one of the most significant problems in human and veterinary medicine. To examine the extent of the problem in bacteria of veterinary importance in Israel, the results of the in vitro susceptibility tests of Salmonella enterica serogroup B, Escherichia coli, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pasteurella multocida and Mannheimia haemolytica, isolated from animals between 1990 and 2009, were assessed and statistically analyzed. The results showed that out of 52 bacterium/drug combinations tested, no statistically significant changes or increase in susceptibility were observed in 59.6% and 26.9% of the combinations, respectively. A decrease in susceptibility was found in 13.5% of the combinations, most significantly for the fluoroquinolones. Keywords: Long term, animal, bacterial pathogens, antibacterial, susceptibility
AB ST RAC T
INTRODUCTION
Recent reports of increased prevalence of bacteria resistant to various antibacterial drugs as well as the phenomenon of drug multi-resistance are one of the most disconcerting trends of contemporary bacteriology. This trend has been attributed primarily to the exposure of bacteria to a wide variety of antibacterial drugs at subtherapeutic concentrations in hospitals, their abuse in the community and, in the veterinary field, their use as growth promoters and in the prophylaxis of animal diseases (1). In spite of the importance of the problem, epidemiological data related to resistant bacterial strains still remains scant (2). Such data is of fundamental importance in understanding the various factors contributing to the problem. This survey aims to analyze data gathered in Israel in the years 1990-2009 from in vitro susceptibility tests by the disc diffusion method, of bacteria isolated at the Department of Bacteriology at the Kimron
Veterinary Institute from dogs, cats, large and small ruminants and horses. A special case in this report is that of the prevalence of S. enterica sgr. B isolates resistant to gentamicin. This drug was introduced in Israel for farm animal therapy in 1980. In the following years the quantity of gentamicin used by the veterinarians of the "Haklait", an organization providing clinical services to a large majority of Israeli cattle, and the prevalence of bovine S. Typhimurium isolates resistant to the drug were recorded and the correlation between the two determined.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Strains
All the strains were isolated from samples originating from sick animals, submitted to the Department of Bacteriology, Kimron Veterinary Institute. Only recognized animal pathoIsrael Journal of Veterinary Medicine  Vol. 66 (4)  December 2011
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gens were included in the survey, on condition that at least 30 isolates were examined each year. Based on these criteria the following bacteria were examined: 1. Salmonella enterica serogroup (sgr) B, isolated primarily from enteric infections of ruminants. The survey includes isolates only from 1990 to 2004. (From 2005 isolates declined below the cut-off of 30 isolates per year and therefore could not be included). Serotype identification was performed at the Central Laboratories for Enterobacteriaceae of the Israeli Ministry of Health. 2. Escherichia coli, Proteus spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, isolated primarily from various infections of domestic carnivores. 3. Pasteurella multocida is one of the most important etiological agents of respiratory and other infections in various animals. The micro-organisms included in this survey were isolated from both ruminant and domestic carnivores in approximately equal numbers. 4. Mannheimia haemolytica, isolated from respiratory infections of ruminants. The strains were identified by standard methods (3). Isolates from mastitis cases and avian species were not included in the survey, as they are dealt with in other laboratories.
Table 1: Bacterium/drug combinations included in the survey E. coli/Proteus M. haemolytica/ spp./ S. enterica P. multocida sgr. B P. aeruginosa + +
Drug
Sulfamethoxazole Trimethoprim Ampicillin Amoxycillin/ Clavulanate Cephalothin Cefotaxime Gentamicin
+
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
Amikacin Fluoroquinolones Tetracyclines Chloramphenicol/ Florfenicol Polymyxin B
+
+
+
+
In vitro susceptibility testing was performed by the CLSI (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, formerly NCLS) standard disk diffusion method. Inhibition zones were measured with a digital caliber and recorded quantitatively (diameter). Interpretation was made according to the most recent CLSI criteria (4).
Susceptibility
Statistical analysis
Fifty two bacterium/drug combinations were included in the survey (Table 1).
Table 2: Percent susceptible Proteus spp. isolates
Eventual trends of susceptible isolate rates during the survey period were analyzed with the LINEST() function of MS Excel®. This function calculates the statistics for a line
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 N 65 68 59 56 62 71 76 83 92 97 117 Sxt 46.2 42.6 40.7 39.3 41.9 42.3 40.8 37.3 28.3 48.5 48.7 Cep 20.3 21.4 27.4 29.6 28.9 12.0 29.3 33.0 53.0 Amp 44.6 41.2 28.8 48.2 46.8 33.8 34.2 36.1 34.8 43.2 51.7 Amc 25.4 46.4 54.8 54.9 47.4 48.2 57.6 57.9 68.4 Gen 81.5 82.4 79.7 83.9 88.7 91.5 85.5 81.9 83.7 75.3 88.9 Flq 86.2 97.1 91.5 91.1 82.3 88.7 82.9 74.7 79.8 90.7 94.0 Ctx 58.5 63.2 66.1 60.7 54.8 66.2 50.0 50.6 54.3 70.8 75.0 PB 9.2 8.8 13.6 12.5 21.0 23.9 17.1 14.5 15.2 13.5 25.0 Clm 20.0 13.2 25.4 33.9 46.8 50.7 40.8 30.1 29.7 35.1 41.9 Amk 71.4 67.6 59.3 69.1 88.7 91.5 82.9 70.0 89.1 90.7 92.2
2001 110 48.2 32.7 43.1 56.0 84.5 80.9 70.6 19.0 25.4 85.4
2002 127 47.2 29.1 52.4 41.7 81.1 87.4 71.6 13.4 21.3 81.1
2003 116 41.4 34.5 44.8 40.5 83.6 83.6 81.7 9.6 18.7 75.0
2004 81 41.5 34.2 37.8 32.1 75.6 80.3 73.2 12.2 17.3 76.5
2005 87 57.5 38.4 48.3 41.9 85.1 80.5 82.8 11.5 75.0 85.1
2006 102 52.9 52.9 54.9 56.9 84.3 83.3 81.4 11.0 89.2 82.3
2007 94 56.4 65.6 60.2 84.0 89.4 90.4 88.3 3.2 90.4 95.7
2008 61 55.7 68.9 50.8 78.7 82.0 63.9 91.8 6.6 85.7 90.2
2009 95 54.7 73.7 49.5 79.0 84.2 60.0 90.5 4.2 94.7 85.3
N: Number of isolates, Sxt: Sulphamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Cep: Cephalothin, Amp: Ampicillin, Amc: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, Gen; Gentamicin, Flq: Floroquinolones, Ctx: Cefotaxime, PB: Polymyxin B, Clm: Chloramphenicol, Amk: Amikacin
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by using the "least squares" method. One of the parameters it calculates is the F statistic used to determine whether the observed relationship between the dependent and independent variables occurs by chance by consulting F percentile distribution tables. Changes were considered significant at p values lower than 0.05.
Table 3: Percent susceptible E. coli isolates Year 1990 1991 N 272 225 Sxt 44.1 39.6 Cep Amp 11.4 18.7 Amc Gen 67.6 75.1 Flq 86.4 91.1 Ctx 58.8 67.1 PB 51.1 54.2 Clm 44.9 40.9 Amk 53.4 53.3 1992 225 42.2 16.9 27.6 40.0 73.3 91.1 62.7 73.3 40.9 41.5 1993 206 42.7 13.6 24.8 44.7 80.6 83.0 67.0 75.2 52.4 56.8 1994 315 47.3 15.6 19.0 43.8 76.8 82.1 78.1 87.3 53.7 78.1
RESULTS
The results of the survey are presented in Tables 2-7 as the percentage of susceptible isolates. The bacterium/drug combinations with statistically significant trends are presented in Table 8.
N: Number of isolates, Sxt: Sulphamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Cep: Cephalothin, Amp: Ampicillin, Amc: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, Gen; Gentamicin, Flq: Floroquinolones, Ctx: Cefotaxime, PB: Polymyxin B, Clm: Chloramphenicol, Amk: Amikacin Table 4: Percent susceptible S. enterica serogroup B. isolates Year N Sxt Cep Amp Amc Gen Flq Ctx PB Clm Amk 1990 89 39.3 29.2 52.8 89.9 59.6 74.2 32.6 72.6 1991 115 34.8 33.9 47.8 93.9 73.9 66.1 35.7 76.5 1992 91 37.4 72.5 40.7 61.5 67.0 96.7 69.2 81.3 39.6 82.4 1993 106 58.5 59.4 45.3 57.5 79.2 86.8 69.8 77.4 50.9 76.4 1994 94 71.3 78.7 37.2 61.7 86.2 67.0 83.0 89.4 44.7 95.7 1995 128 74.2 87.5 34.4 51.6 85.9 98.4 78.9 89.8 36.7 97.7
1995 370 46.2 26.5 19.2 54.3 79.5 81.1 82.2 92.2 61.6 85.9
1996 366 54.6 17.2 18.0 40.2 75.7 84.7 65.0 87.4 65.0 76.2
1997 330 57.0 20.9 23.9 50.6 79.7 77.9 72.7 82.4 74.8 73.9
1998 281 59.4 28.1 29.9 61.9 83.6 82.7 82.2 87.9 76.4 89.0
1999 364 59.9 20.9 38.7 68.4 75.8 72.5 79.5 81.0 72.0 92.3
2000 344 51.5 32.3 37.5 71.5 73.8 76.2 82.3 86.3 72.7 90.7
2001 335 56.1 9.0 34.1 53.4 77.6 77.0 83.6 76.6 73.0 78.4
2002 368 48.6 7.1 27.5 28.8 80.2 74.5 77.5 77.1 69.0 80.7
2003 454 54.9 8.6 30.8 20.9 78.4 75.3 85.2 84.4 72.0 68.8
2004 389 52.7 7.7 21.1 16.5 71.7 74.2 81.9 73.8 75.3 73.6
2005 367 55.5 8.0 27.0 17.2 73.0 70.8 78.9 74.9 77.6 73.0
2006 408 49.5 11.3 24.0 22.0 70.4 64.5 81.9 80.9 77.0 84.4
2007 420 51.3 8.6 25.0 49.3 75.3 72.4 82.2 73.3 76.7 88.0
2008 278 55.4 2.9 12.0 48.2 73.7 59.7 63.3 48.6 73.4 78.1
2009 228 50.0 5.3 15.0 56.1 74.5 56.3 76.1 73.0 75.8 90.3
N: Number of isolates, Sxt: Sulphamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Cep: Cephalothin, Amp: Ampicillin, Amc: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, Gen; Gentamicin, Flq: Floroquinolones, Ctx: Cefotaxime, PB: Polymyxin B, Clm: Chloramphenicol, Amk: Amikacin Table 5: Percent susceptible Pasteurella multocida isolates
1996 160 82.5 68.1 36.9 53.1 93.1 96.3 70.6 89.4 45.0 90.0
1997 131 72.5 71.8 45.0 53.4 95.4 91.6 65.6 86.3 51.1 87.5
1998 77 85.7 84.4 27.3 31.2 92.2 91.9 80.5 93.5 32.5 96.1
1999 54 79.6 64.8 37.0 58.8 79.6 92.6 100 79.6 40.7 90.7
2000 72 83.3 88.9 38.9 44.4 90.3 98.6 79.2 94.4 37.5 94.4
2001 77 77.9 71.4 50.0 57.1 92.2 98.7 81.8 76.6 58.4 88.3
2002 83 77.1 61.7 56.6 57.8 97.6 96.4 73.5 81.9 83.1 86.6
2003 44 79.6 43.2 51.2 45.5 84.1 95.5 77.3 72.7 72.4 83.7
2004 40 65.0 27.5 32.5 35.0 65.0 75.0 65.0 65.0 60.0 80.0
2005 12 91.7 53.9 41.7 33.3 100 91.7 75.0 81.8 75.0 81.8
2006 30 66.7 43.3 50.0 50.0 86.7 96.7 63.3 72.4 82.8 82.8
N: Number of isolates, Sxt: Sulphamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Cep: Cephalothin, Amp: Ampicillin, Amc: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, Gen; Gentamicin, Flq: Floroquinolones, Ctx: Cefotaxime, Tet: Tetracyclines, Clm: Chloramphenicol
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 N 100 56 64 77 99 147 122 138 122 108 Sxt 70.0 87.5 79.7 87.0 85.9 81.6 86.9 82.6 77.0 83.3 Cep 85.0 96.4 90.6 92.2 93.9 87.8 89.3 87.7 69.7 87.0 Amp 88.0 92.9 92.2 93.5 92.9 91.8 90.2 89.1 86.9 92.6 Amc 92.2 92.2 94.9 97.3 94.3 91.3 95.1 88.9 Gen 73.0 94.6 95.3 87.0 96.0 95.2 92.6 79.7 89.3 82.4 Flq 93.8 90.9 92.9 88.4 86.9 78.3 100 78.5 Ctx 89.1 83.1 82.8 87.8 81.1 76.1 100 79.6 Tet 72.0 83.9 64.1 71.4 47.5 52.4 60.7 52.9 68.0 60.2 Clm 89.0 92.9 90.6 93.5 92.9 92.5 90.2 91.3 87.7 89.8
2000 102 93.1 94.1 88.2 96.1 89.2 92.2 83.3 81.2 96.1
2001 91 90.4 90.4 88.4 87.5 76.0 93.3 84.6 79.8 97.1
2002 141 89.4 92.9 94.3 92.2 83.7 95.0 89.4 75.9 93.6
2003 111 86.7 87.6 92.0 85.6 69.4 93.8 80.1 68.1 92.9
2004 98 93.8 86.7 93.9 85.7 75.3 94.9 90.8 78.4 92.8
2005 108 89.8 81.5 87.0 77.1 78.0 94.5 73.4 68.8 96.2
2006 137 88.3 92.7 90.5 86.9 83.2 91.2 84.7 72.4 97.1
2007 108 89.8 92.5 92.6 94.4 91.6 96.3 89.8 80.2 97.2
2008 32 93.8 84.4 65.6 93.8 81.3 96.9 81.3 78.1 100
2009 44 87.2 89.4 91.5 95.7 87.2 95.7 87.2 76.6 93.6
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Table 6: Percent susceptible Mannheimia haemolytica isolates
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 N 106 75 63 91 98 102 64 73 65 63 Sxt 90.6 88.0 93.7 80.2 100.0 90.2 84.4 78.1 68.8 88.9 Cep 95.3 98.7 96.8 91.2 78.6 98.0 98.4 91.8 92.3 93.7 Amp 93.4 89.3 93.7 78.0 94.9 86.3 76.6 78.1 75.4 81.0 Amc 96.8 98.9 74.5 98.0 95.3 93.2 93.8 93.5 Gen 80.2 85.3 90.5 83.5 99.0 96.1 98.4 87.7 95.2 81.0 Flq 93.7 92.3 92.9 90.2 93.8 90.4 87.7 87.3 Ctx 90.5 92.3 95.9 95.1 92.2 91.8 86.2 85.7 Tet 82.1 69.3 81.0 64.8 54.1 55.9 54.7 42.5 53.8 60.3 Clm 95.3 94.7 93.7 91.2 94.9 93.1 90.6 94.5 93.8 90.3
2000 50 76.0 94.0 86.0 96.0 86.0 84.0 94.0 59.2 88.0
2001 49 94.6 98.2 96.4 100.0 87.5 92.9 98.2 66.1 91.1
2002 52 92.3 94.2 90.4 94.2 78.9 86.5 88.5 65.4 90.4
2003 54 90.7 98.2 94.4 90.7 70.4 90.7 92.6 55.6 98.1
2004 57 94.6 92.9 96.5 94.7 73.7 98.2 98.2 61.4 80.4
2005 59 89.8 96.6 87.9 91.6 71.2 98.3 86.4 61.0 98.2
2006 59 94.9 94.9 86.4 94.9 89.8 94.9 94.9 50.9 98.3
2007 73 89.0 97.2 93.2 97.3 81.9 98.6 94.5 54.8 98.6
2008 49 81.6 87.8 61.2 100.0 71.4 87.8 87.5 61.2 95.9
2009 42 92.9 85.7 83.3 97.6 78.6 85.7 97.6 71.4 97.6
N: Number of isolates, Sxt: Sulphamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Cep: Cephalothin, Amp: Ampicillin, Amc: Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, Gen; Gentamicin, Flq: Floroquinolones, Ctx: Cefotaxime, Tet: Tetracyclines, Clm: Chloramphenicol Table 7: Percent susceptible Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates Year N Sxt Flq Gen PB 1990 58 37.9 96.6 81.0 70.9 1991 75 49.3 92.0 82.7 71.6 1992 45 55.6 100 84.4 75.6 1993 54 83.3 98.1 85.2 85.2 1994 64 79.7 96.9 95.3 81.3 1995 57 89.5 91.2 94.7 86.0 1996 77 87.0 85.7 88.3 88.3
1997 82 76.8 75.6 91.5 82.7
1998 83 91.6 83.1 93.9 95.2
1999 127 63.8 83.5 87.4 84.0
2000 116 78.4 94.0 84.3 91.4
2001 149 68.5 83.2 86.6 85.2
2002 117 60.7 84.6 87.2 78.6
2003 131 57.7 92.4 87.8 72.5
2004 104 50.0 77.9 87.3 75.0
2005 111 76.0 87.0 97.0 94.0
2006 147 82.4 83.8 95.2 90.5
2007 110 89.1 83.5 92.7 90.9
2008 74 79.7 18.9 78.4 85.1
2009 114 75.4 10.5 93.9 86.0
N: Number of isolates, Sxt: Sulphamethoxazole-Trimethoprim, Gen; Gentamicin, Flq: Floroquinolones, PB: Polymyxin B Table 8: Bacterium/drug combinations that showed a statistically significant change in susceptibility during the survey. Drug Cefotaxime Amikacin Sulphamethoxazole/Trimethoprim Ampicillin Chloramphenicol Cephalothin Fluoroquinolone Polymyxin B Cephalothin Gentamicin Salmonella sgr. B E. coli Proteus spp. P. aeruginosa P. multocida M. heamolytica
P<0.05 P<0.01
P<0.05 P<0.05
Increase in susceptibility (statistical significance) P<0.05 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.05 P<0.05 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 Decrease in susceptibility (statistical significance) P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.01 P<0.05 P<0.05
The majority (59.6%) of the bacterium/drug combinations examined showed no significant differences in the susceptibility values from the beginning to the end of the survey. Two patterns were observed in this group: a) the trend did not change throughout the period of the survey or b) values followed a curve, returning at the end of the survey period to values observed at the beginning. Among the remaining
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combinations, the majority showed an increase in susceptibility, which was statistically highly significant (p<0.01) in 10 cases (19.2%) or at a lesser significance (p<0.05) in 4 cases (7.7%). A decrease in susceptibility was observed in 7 combinations, of which 3 (5.8%) were associated with fluoroquinolones and showed a high statistical significance. The most noteworthy results are detailed below:
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Salmonella enterica sgr. B (Figure 1)
While statistically insignificant, the susceptibility to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim and gentamicin increased between 1992 and 1997 and remained essentially unchanged, however, with periodical fluctuations. The overall trend for chloramphenicol susceptibility showed a highly statistically significant increase (p<0.01). However this increase was not homogeneous: susceptibility was stable till 2000, increased rapidly until 2002 and returned to stability (with fluctuations) thereafter. No correlation (r=0.08) was found between the quantity (in kilograms) of gentamicin used by the field clinicians of the "Haklait" and the prevalence of bovine S. Typhimurium resistance to the drug (Figure 2a). However, moving the curve of the resistant strains forward in time (Figure 2b), improved the correlation gradually to r=0.42. The curves seemed to follow the same pattern till 1994, with a correlation coefficient of 0.88. In the following years, however, the curves diverged (Figure 2b).
Figure 1: Percent of S. enterica serogroup B susceptible to sulfamethoxazoletrimethoprim, gentamicin and chloramphenicol
Escherichia coli (Figure 3)
The susceptibility of this microorganism to chloramphenicol throughout the survey period increased significantly (p<0.01). However, this increase was relatively steep between 1992 and 1998 and was followed by a period of stability. Analyzing the susceptibility rate of E. coli to amoxicillin-clavulanate throughout the survey resulted in no significant change. In fact the value in 1992 (the year in which the drug was first tested) was 40% and in 2009 about 56%. However, the relevant curve showed that the rate increased between 1990 and 2000, declining steeply until 2004 and increasing almost as steeply until 2007 and then more moderately for the following 2 years.
Figure 2a: Gentamicin use (kg) and prevalence of bovine Salmonella Typhimurium isolates resistant to the drug
Proteus spp. (Figure 4)
The susceptibility rate of Proteus spp. to amoxicillin-clavulanate increased between 1992
Figure 2b: Gentamicin use (kg) and prevalence of bovine Salmonella Typhimurium isolates resistant to the drug – five year time lapse
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Figure 3: Percent of Escherichia coli susceptible to amoxicillin-clavulanate and chloramphenicol
and 2000, decreased steeply until 2004 and increased in 2007, followed by 2 years of moderate decrease with a tendency towards stability. This curve was very similar to that observed for the same drug with E. coli (Figure 2). The susceptibility rate of Proteus spp. to cephalothin increased between 1992 and 2009 from 20.3% to 73.7% (p<0.01). Similarly, the susceptibility of Proteus spp. to chloramphenicol remained generally unchanged between 1990 and 2004, but increased steeply in the following two years (20052006), a tendency that was sustained, albeit more moderately, between 2007 and 2009.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Figure 5)
While being the drug group that was the most affected by emerging resistance (Table 8) the susceptibility rate of P. aeruginosa to fluoroquinolones declined slowly but steadily between 1990 (96.5%) and 2007 (83.5%). In 2008 the susceptibility rate dropped abruptly to 18.9% further decreasing in 2009 to 10.5%,
Pasteurella multocida (Figure 6)
Figure 4: Percent of Proteus spp. susceptible to amoxicillin-clavulanate and cephalothin
The susceptibility of this microorganism to tetracyclines declined between 1990 and 1994 but the trend was reversed between 1994 and 2000, remaining stable thereafter (Figure 6). Susceptibility curves of domestic carnivores were similar to those observed in ruminants (Figure 7).
Mannheimia haemolytica (Figure 8)
The microorganism's susceptibility to tetracycline decreased between 1990 and 1997, increasing thereafter slightly until 2006 and more abruptly until 2009 to levels slightly lower than those observed 20 years earlier.
DISCUSSION
The expression "long term" has been used for surveys spanning from 2 to 8 years (5, 6, 7) or for the comparison between two or more periods (8, 9). As demonstrated in our survey, the shorter the survey period, the greater the likeliTwenty year analysis of animal pathogens in Israel
Figure 5: Percent of Pseudomonas aeruginosa susceptible to fluoroquinolones
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Figure 6: Percent of Pasteurella multocida isolates susceptible to tetracyclines
Figure 7: Percent of Pasteurella multocida isolates susceptible to tetracyclines grouped by source animal. Dotted lines: polynomial trendlines
Figure 8: Percent of Mannheimia haemolytica isolates susceptible to tetracyclines
hood of misinterpreting fluctuations as trends. Examining split periods, on the other hand, may provide a valid picture if the trends are linear for the whole period, including the interval, but not if the changes are represented by a curve (such as those found in our study for the susceptibility rates of P. multocida and M. haemolytica to the tetracyclines). In fact, no study can guarantee to be able to have a consistent predictive value. The longer the study, however, the higher the likelihood that it will provide a dependable depiction of a specific drug/bacterium interaction. Nevertheless, studies of antibacterial susceptibility spanning two decades are rare. Recently two other surveys, spanning two or more decades, were published (10, 11). It is becoming more apparent that the equation linking extensive use of an antibacterial drug and the increase in the prevalence of strains resistance is too simplistic. The dynamics of antibacterial drug resistance are highly complex involving among other factors selective pressures and "penalties" sometimes imposed upon resistant strains controlling their spread, such as hygienic conditions. Attempts to develop reliable models simulating these processes have been made during the last decade (12). The results of our analysis seem to disprove some accepted paradigms regarding the evolution of antibacterial resistance. We found that susceptibility remained mostly unchanged and even if periodic decreases occurred, they were followed by increases. Moreover, several drug/ bacterium combinations showed a significant increase in susceptibility. Highly significant (p<0.01) decreases were the exception and seen in only 3 combinations, all involving fluoroquinolones. The results of the susceptibility of the various bacteria to this drug underline the difficulty in defining universal rules for the evolution of resistance over time. A decrease was continuous for two Enterobacteriaceae (E. coli and Proteus spp.) while it decreased rapidly during a single year for P. aeruginosa. At the same time
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the susceptibilities of S. enterica sgr. B (belonging also to the Enterobacteriacea) and of P. multocida and M. haemolytica remained unchanged. Another paradigm which was not substantiated by our results is the dependence of resistance induction on the intensity of exposure to the respective antibacterial drug. While detailed information of drug use during the study period is not available, general knowledge of therapeutic practices are known. Our results reveal other examples that seem to substantiate that factors other than drugs use may influence the evolution of resistance. Trimethoprim potentiated sulfonamides are widely used to treat farm animals in Israel. Nevertheless, the susceptibility of S. enterica sgr. B remained stable since 1997, after 7 years of an increase in susceptibility. A similar observation was made for P. multocida and M. haemolytica, both of which are frequently exposed to prophylactic tetracyclines, administered to ruminants in food. This did not prevent an increase in the susceptibility of these microorganisms in recent years, even though there was no significant change in the use of the drug. The replacement of susceptible bacterial populations with resistant strains or vice versa sometimes occurred very abruptly. The susceptibility of Proteus spp. to cephalothin, amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and chloramphenicol increased steeply between 2004 and 2007 whereas that of P. aeruginosa to fluoroquinolones decreased from 83.3% susceptible isolates in 2007 to 18.9% in 2008, to 10.5% in 2009, transforming it from drug of choice to being practically useless in treating P. aeruginosa infections. The oral treatment of feedlot calves with tetracyclines in order to prevent respiratory infections is widespread in Israel. Consequently, based exclusively on the microorganism's exposure to subtherapeutic doses, a continuing decline in susceptibility would be expected. Domestic carnivores, on the other hand, are subjected to tetracycline treatment mostly for therapeutic purposes, which is less likely to induce resistance. The similarity between trendlines based on the susceptibility curves for P. multocida from these two populations indicate that the exposure to tetracyclines either at subtherapeutic or therapeutic doses did not influence significantly the development to resistant strains. The correlation between the use of gentamicin and the prevalence of resistant bovine S. Typhimurium isolates reveals several noteworthy findings. The time lapse required to
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reach the highest correlation coefficient between the gentamicin use and that of the resistant S. Typhimurium isolates was 5 years. This might be an indication of the time required for the drug to influence the microorganism's susceptibility on a national basis. Another interesting observation is that after an initial matching course of the curves, they diverge and an increase in the use of the drug did not correspond to an increase in resistance (Figure 2b). A similar observation was made by Imberechts et al. (13), regarding the apparent loss of resistance of S. Typhimurium to enrofloxacin. This phenomenon is a possible indication of susceptible strains, considered inferior under antibiotic selective pressure, being able to supersede the resistant ones by a mechanism still to be determined. A recent publication (14) underlines the complexity of the balance between susceptible and resistant microbial populations, once the selective pressure of the drug is withdrawn. While penalties stemming from maintaining resistance mechanisms that are a waste of energy in the absence of the antibacterial compound and eventual decreases in their capabilities to complete their life cycle (fitness) will tend to reduce their prevalence, compensatory mutations that improve their energetic efficacy and/or fitness may reduce or annul such penalties. This is corroborated by our observations on the reaction of Salmonella enterica sgr. B, E. coli and Proteus spp. to the withdrawal of chloramphenicol in food animals in 1992. The susceptibility of Salmonella enterica sgr. B to the drug remained unchanged for eight years (Figure 1), despite the origin of the isolates, farm animals that should have been the most influenced by the withdrawal. The susceptibility of E. coli to the drug, on the other hand, increased the same year the drug was removed from use (Figure 3), this despite the fact that the large majority of our isolates came from domestic carnivores, mostly unaffected by the ban. At the same time, the susceptibility of Proteus spp., isolated primarily from the same population, showed no such change in susceptibility, that started to increase only in 2005 (Figure 4). In conclusion, our findings did show that some of the paradigms associated with antibacterial drug use and resistance development, such as the one claiming that continuous prolonged use of a drug will reduce the rate of susceptible microorganisms, may be true in some cases but not all, especially if the survey period is extended enough to reveal long term fluctuations and trends.
Twenty year analysis of animal pathogens in Israel
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